The Heart of the Tree – Summary and Analysis

In Short

• The poem asks the central question three times: "What does he plant who plants a tree?"
• In the first stanza, planting a tree means planting companionship with nature, beauty, and a home for birds and their song
• The tree becomes a shaft of beauty reaching toward heaven and a source of harmony and peace
• In the second stanza, planting a tree means providing shade, rain, seeds, and buds for future growth and generations
• The tree plants the glory of nature, the forest's heritage, and the future's harvest and joy
• In the third stanza, planting a tree means planting in love of home, loyalty, and civic good—planting the man's own selfless heart
• The tree planter's heart is stirred by the nation's growth; his heart serves a purpose larger than himself
• The poem reveals that the tree planter has a "bigger selfless heart"—comparable to the tree's heart in its selfless service
• Both tree and man are selfless servants to their communities and to the future, continuously nurturing without personal reward
• The title "The Heart of the Tree" encompasses both the tree's physical heart and the tree planter's spiritual heart—both defined by selfless service

The Heart of the Tree – Line by Line Analysis

Stanza I (Lines 1-9): The Spiritual and Aesthetic Dimensions of Tree Planting

What does he plant who plants a tree?
He plants a friend of sun and sky;
He plants the flag of breezes free;
The shaft of beauty, towering high;
He plants a home to heaven anigh;
For song and mother-croon of bird
In hushed and happy twilight heard—
The treble of heaven's harmony—
These things he plants who plants a tree.

The poem opens with the central question: "What does he plant who plants a tree?" This is not a simple query about horticultural facts but a philosophical inquiry into the deeper meaning and consequences of the act of tree planting. The question's framing—using "he" to suggest any person who undertakes this action—universalizes the experience and makes it applicable to any reader.

The speaker immediately provides answers through vivid metaphors. "He plants a friend of sun and sky" personifies the tree as a friend or companion to natural elements. The tree becomes not merely an object but a relational being that interacts with and benefits the world around it. "He plants the flag of breezes free" uses the metaphor of a flag to suggest the tree as a symbol of freedom and natural force. The flag fluttering in the wind evokes movement, vitality, and liberation.

"The shaft of beauty, towering high" describes the tree's physical form and aesthetic value. "Shaft" suggests a vertical line or beam—the tree's trunk rising upward. The tree is characterized as beautiful and monumental, reaching upward. "He plants a home to heaven anigh" (anigh = near) elevates the tree's significance, suggesting that planting a tree brings heaven closer to earth or creates a sacred space.

The stanza concludes by describing the tree as a home for birds, where their "mother-croon" and song create "the treble of heaven's harmony" in the "hushed and happy twilight." This imagery suggests that the tree creates spaces of peace, beauty, and natural spirituality. The repetition of "These things he plants who plants a tree" serves as a refrain, emphasizing that all these spiritual and aesthetic benefits are indeed what one plants.

Stanza II (Lines 10-18): The Future-Oriented and Generational Benefits

What does he plant who plants a tree?
He plants cool shade and tender rain,
And seed and bud of days to be,
And years that fade and flush again;
He plants the glory of the plain;
He plants the forest's heritage;
The harvest of a coming age;
The joy that unborn eyes shall see—
These things he plants who plants a tree.

The second stanza repeats the central question and shifts focus to the practical, environmental, and generational benefits of tree planting. "Cool shade and tender rain" describe the immediate, tangible benefits a tree provides. Shade offers refuge from heat; rain nourishes the earth. These phrases emphasize the tree's role in creating comfortable, habitable space.

"And seed and bud of days to be" uses poetic language to express future growth and reproduction. Seeds and buds represent potential, new life, and the continuation of growth through time. "And years that fade and flush again" suggests the cyclical nature of seasons and the tree's participation in nature's rhythms. The tree witnesses change yet endures, growing and adapting through the years.

"He plants the glory of the plain" elevates the humble act of tree planting to something glorious. A single tree in a plain landscape transforms that landscape, making it more beautiful and valuable. "He plants the forest's heritage" suggests that planting a single tree is participating in a larger environmental legacy. That one tree may grow into a forest, preserving and expanding nature's heritage.

"The harvest of a coming age" and "The joy that unborn eyes shall see" emphasize the future-oriented nature of tree planting. The tree planter never experiences the full maturation and benefits of his tree; rather, he plants for future generations he will never meet. This captures the selfless, forward-thinking nature of the act. The refrain reiterates that these future-oriented, generous benefits are what one truly plants.

Stanza III (Lines 19-27): The Civic, Spiritual, and National Dimensions—The Planter's Selfless Heart

What does he plant who plants a tree?
He plants, in sap and leaf and wood,
In love of home and loyalty
And far-cast thought of civic good—
His blessings on the neighborhood,
Who in the hollow of His hand
Holds all the growth of all our land—
A nation's growth from sea to sea
Stirs in his heart who plants a tree.

The third stanza again repeats the central question and provides a final, comprehensive answer that reveals the deepest truth about tree planting. "He plants, in sap and leaf and wood" grounds the discussion in the tree's physical matter—the actual substance of the tree—while suggesting that this physical matter carries spiritual significance. The tree's sap, leaf, and wood are not merely materials but vehicles for meaning and connection.

"In love of home and loyalty / And far-cast thought of civic good" introduces emotional and social dimensions that are absolutely central to understanding the true meaning of tree planting. The tree planter acts from "love of home"—profound attachment to place and community—and "loyalty" to those who will inherit the land. These are motivations rooted in care, affection, and responsibility. "And far-cast thought of civic good" emphasizes the public-spirited nature of tree planting. "Far-cast" suggests thoughts that extend far into the future and across broad landscapes. The tree planter is motivated by concern for the common good and the welfare of the community.

"His blessings on the neighborhood" describes the tree as a blessing—a gift or benediction—that the planter bestows on his community. This language elevates tree planting to an almost sacramental act. The crucial final lines—"A nation's growth from sea to sea / Stirs in his heart who plants a tree"—reveal that the tree planter's heart is not concerned with personal gain or recognition. Instead, his heart is stirred by something larger: the nation's growth and welfare. His heart finds purpose and meaning not in what he gains but in what he contributes to the larger whole.

This final revelation is essential to understanding the poem's title and deepest meaning. The tree planter plants not merely a tree but his own selfless heart. Just as the tree's heart (its inner sap and essence) continuously serves all living beings by providing shade, oxygen, beauty, and sustenance without expecting return, so too does the tree planter's heart (his inner essence, emotions, dreams, and wishes) operate as a force for selfless service. The poem reveals that a truly noble heart—a "bigger selfless heart"—is one that finds its purpose in serving the community and future generations, one whose very being is stirred by concern for the welfare of others.

The Heart of the Tree – Word Notes

Plant/plants: To place something in the ground for growth; used metaphorically to mean to sow, establish, create, or to invest one's heart and values into something with long-term consequences.

Friend of sun and sky: Personification of the tree as a companion or ally to natural elements. The tree benefits from and interacts with the sun and sky.

Flag of breezes free: Metaphor comparing the tree's movement in the wind to a flag fluttering. Suggests the tree as a symbol of freedom and natural force.

Shaft of beauty: The tree's vertical trunk or form described as a beam or shaft of beauty. "Shaft" emphasizes the tree's upright, impressive form.

Towering high: The tree's great height reaching upward. Suggests grandeur, nobility, and aspiration toward the heavens.

Home to heaven anigh: The tree brings heaven closer to earth or creates a sacred, heavenly space. "Anigh" is an archaic word meaning "near."

Mother-croon of bird: The soothing song or lullaby-like sound of mother birds. Suggests nurturance, peace, and natural beauty.

Hushed and happy twilight: Peaceful, quiet evening time. Twilight is when birds sing, creating a moment of natural harmony and beauty.

Treble of heaven's harmony: The high-pitched bird songs contributing to celestial harmony. "Treble" refers to high musical notes; the birds' songs are part of heaven's music.

Cool shade and tender rain: Practical, tangible benefits the tree provides. Shade offers refuge from heat; rain nourishes life.

Seed and bud of days to be: Seeds and buds represent future growth, potential, and new life to come. "Days to be" suggests future time.

Years that fade and flush again: Seasons passing and returning; the cyclical rhythms of nature. The tree participates in and witnesses these cycles.

Glory of the plain: A single tree beautifies and ennobles a plain landscape, making it more valuable and glorious.

Forest's heritage: The tree's role in preserving and extending the natural heritage of forests. One tree may grow into a forest.

Harvest of a coming age: Future benefits and fruits that the tree will provide to future generations. "Harvest" suggests abundance and nourishment.

Joy that unborn eyes shall see: Happiness and beauty that future people (not yet born) will experience and appreciate from the tree.

Sap and leaf and wood: The physical substance of the tree—its life-giving sap, foliage, and solid structure. These materials have both practical and spiritual significance, representing the tree's essence.

Love of home and loyalty: Emotional motivations for tree planting—deep attachment to place and community, and commitment to their welfare. These are the emotional drivers of the tree planter's selfless heart.

Far-cast thought of civic good: Forward-thinking concern for the common good and community welfare. "Far-cast" suggests thoughts extending far into the future and affecting many people.

Blessings on the neighborhood: The tree is a gift or benediction that the planter bestows on the community. Suggests divine grace and generosity flowing from the planter's selfless heart.

Hollow of His hand: A biblical phrase suggesting divine sustenance and care. God holds all creation in His hands, and the tree planter works in partnership with divine creation.

All the growth of all our land: All the natural and national development and abundance of the country.

Nation's growth from sea to sea: The nation's complete expansion and development across its entire geography from one ocean to another.

Stirs in his heart: The tree planter's heart is moved, awakened, and motivated by concern for national growth. His heart's purpose is found in serving the larger whole.

Publication

"The Heart of the Tree" was written by Henry Cuyler Bunner and published in 1912 (though some sources indicate earlier publication around 1893). The poem appeared during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a period of significant environmental and social concern in America. The late 19th century saw the rise of the conservation movement, led by figures like John Muir and Theodore Roosevelt, who advocated for the preservation of natural spaces and resources.

Bunner's poem contributed to this cultural conversation about nature and environmental responsibility, but from a distinctly poetic and philosophical angle. Rather than merely advocating environmental policy, the poem elevates tree planting to a profound human act with spiritual, social, and national significance. The poem reveals that tree planting is ultimately about the planter's own heart—his values, motivations, and commitment to service. The poem has remained popular and widely anthologized, appearing in numerous poetry collections, textbooks, and environmental literature. It is particularly valued in educational contexts, where it is taught to introduce students to themes of environmental stewardship, civic responsibility, and the connection between individual actions and broader social and environmental consequences.

Context

Henry Cuyler Bunner (1855-1896) was an American poet, novelist, journalist, and editor. Born in Oswego, New York, Bunner was a versatile and accomplished literary figure during the late 19th century. He served as the editor of Puck, a prominent humor magazine, from 1878 until his death in 1896. As editor, Bunner influenced American humor and satire, publishing witty observations and critiques of contemporary society. His contributions to American literature extended beyond editorial work; he published poetry collections including "Airs from Arcady" (1884) and "Poems" (1896), and wrote short stories and novels.

"The Heart of the Tree" was written during a period of significant transformation in American attitudes toward nature and the environment. The late 19th century witnessed the rise of the conservation movement and environmental awareness. Theodore Roosevelt's presidency (1901-1909) promoted conservation policies and the creation of national parks and forests. John Muir's writings advocated for wilderness preservation. In this context, Bunner's poem celebrates the humble act of planting a tree as a form of environmental stewardship and civic contribution. The poem reflects the era's growing recognition that individual actions and attitudes toward nature have broader environmental and social consequences.

The poem also reflects 19th-century Romanticism's appreciation for nature and its spiritual dimensions. The Romantic movement, which dominated the 18th and 19th centuries in literature and arts, emphasized the beauty and spiritual significance of natural phenomena. Bunner's personification of the tree, his use of vivid natural imagery, and his philosophical inquiry into the meaning of the act of planting a tree all reflect Romantic sensibilities. The poem treats nature not merely as a resource to be exploited but as a spiritual teacher and source of meaning and value. Furthermore, the poem's elevation of the individual's heart and motivations reflects Romantic emphasis on individual conscience, emotion, and the spiritual dimensions of human experience.

Setting

The setting of "The Heart of the Tree" is deliberately universal and timeless rather than bound to a specific place or historical moment. The poem does not name a particular location, country, or era. Instead, it presents an idealized landscape that encompasses both rural and civic space: plains, forests, neighborhoods, and a nation extending "from sea to sea." This geographical universality is intentional—the poem's message about tree planting and its benefits applies to any location where trees grow and where human communities exist.

The poem's setting is primarily spiritual and psychological rather than physical. The true setting is the interior space of human consciousness, motivation, and moral aspiration. The poem moves between concrete natural spaces (sun, sky, breezes, plains, forests) and abstract conceptual spaces (love, loyalty, civic good, national growth). The "twilight" mentioned in the first stanza creates a liminal space between day and night, earthly and heavenly, present and future. This interstitial space is where the tree exists as a bridge between multiple dimensions of meaning.

The poem also encompasses temporal dimensions beyond any single historical moment. It moves between the present act of planting, the immediate future of the tree's growth, and the distant future when "unborn eyes shall see" the tree's benefits. Time in the poem is cyclical—"years that fade and flush again"—suggesting eternal recurrence and the continuity of seasons. The setting thus transcends any particular time, existing in a realm where past, present, and future coexist in the timeless act of creation and stewardship. Most importantly, the setting encompasses the internal landscape of the tree planter's heart—his emotions, dreams, wishes, and commitment to selfless service. This internal landscape is the deepest setting of the poem.

Title

"The Heart of the Tree" is a title that operates on multiple levels of meaning, creating a profound parallel between the tree and the tree planter himself. On the most literal level, "heart" refers to the central, essential part of a tree—the inner wood and living matter that sustains the tree's life and through which the tree's sap flows, nourishing all parts. However, the title uses "heart" metaphorically in multiple ways to reveal a stunning equivalence: the tree's heart and the tree planter's heart are fundamentally similar in their essential nature—both serve all living beings selflessly.

The final line of the poem—"A nation's growth from sea to sea / Stirs in his heart who plants a tree"—is crucial to understanding the title's deepest meaning. This line reveals that the tree planter's heart is not concerned with personal gain or recognition. Rather, his heart is moved by and committed to serving something larger than himself: the nation's growth and welfare. His heart finds purpose and meaning not in what he gains but in what he contributes to the larger whole. The tree planter has a "bigger selfless heart"—a heart that extends beyond personal interest to embrace the welfare of community and future generations.

The title's genius lies in this implicit comparison: just as the tree's heart (its inner essence and sap) continuously serves all living beings who depend upon it—providing shade, oxygen, food, shelter, beauty, and sustenance without expecting return—so too does the tree planter's heart (his inner essence, emotions, dreams, and wishes) operate as a force for selfless service. Both the tree and the man are comparable in their essential nature: both are selfless servants to a larger whole. The tree does not plant itself for its own benefit but becomes a blessing to the neighborhood and future generations. Similarly, the man plants not for himself but for others—for "unborn eyes" to see, for "a coming age" to harvest, for his community to benefit.

Understanding the title requires recognizing that when the poem asks "What does he plant who plants a tree?" the ultimate answer is this: he plants his own selfless heart. Through the act of planting, the man embeds his values, his love of home, his loyalty, and his commitment to civic good into the earth. The tree becomes an extension of his heart, continuing to serve long after his death. Just as a tree's heart is the invisible engine that sustains all visible life, the tree planter's heart is the invisible motivation that drives all visible action. Both hearts operate on the principle of selfless service—giving without expectation of return, nurturing without recognition, blessing the neighborhood and nation through their essential nature.

The title thus encapsulates the poem's central insight: at the heart of both tree and tree planter is selfless service and commitment to something greater than oneself. The poem teaches that a truly noble heart—a spiritually mature, morally developed heart—is one that finds its deepest purpose in serving others. The tree planter recognizes that his individual act participates in national growth; the tree recognizes that its individual existence serves the entire ecosystem. Both demonstrate the principle that all meaningful life is fundamentally about service to the larger whole.

The title's simplicity contrasts with the richness and complexity of meaning the poem generates. This contrast between simple title and deep meaning reflects the poem's broader message: a simple act of planting a tree contains within it profound spiritual, environmental, and social significance. The "heart" of something apparently simple—planting a tree—reveals itself to be extraordinarily meaningful and consequential. Moreover, the title suggests that by understanding what it means to plant a tree, readers come to understand the true nature of a human heart at its best: a heart capable of selfless service, commitment to community, and deep concern for the welfare of future generations.

Form and Language

"The Heart of the Tree" is written in formal verse with a regular rhyme scheme (ABABBCCAA in each stanza) and consistent line lengths. The poem consists of three nine-line stanzas, each following the same structural pattern. The rhyme scheme creates musicality and memorability, making the poem suitable for oral performance and public declamation. This formal structure was common in 19th-century poetry and reflects the era's aesthetic preferences for order, symmetry, and classical forms.

Bunner's language is elevated yet accessible, using vivid imagery, metaphor, and personification to convey abstract concepts through concrete natural imagery. The poem employs archaic or poetic language ("anigh" for "near," "croon" for singing lullaby) that enhances the poem's timeless, universal quality. The vocabulary is predominantly positive and uplifting—"beauty," "glory," "joy," "blessing"—creating an inspiring tone. The repetition of the central question in each stanza's opening line creates a structural framework and emphasizes the poem's central inquiry. Most significantly, the language progressively deepens and expands, moving from aesthetic descriptions in the first stanza to practical benefits in the second, to finally revealing the emotional and moral dimensions—the heart—of tree planting in the third stanza.

Meter and Rhyme

"The Heart of the Tree" uses a regular meter, with most lines in iambic pentameter or near-pentameter (ten syllables with alternating unstressed and stressed beats). This regular metrical structure creates a rhythmic flow and makes the poem easy to read aloud. The consistent meter contributes to the poem's musical quality and formal elegance.

The rhyme scheme of each stanza is ABABBCCAA. This means: the first and third lines rhyme (A), the second, fourth, and fifth lines rhyme (B), the sixth and seventh lines rhyme (C), and the eighth and ninth lines rhyme (A). This intricate rhyme pattern creates sonic satisfaction and binds the stanza together thematically. The rhyme scheme is neither perfectly regular (like a sonnet) nor completely free (like free verse), occupying a middle ground that creates structure without rigidity. The repetition of the "A" rhyme at both the beginning and end of the stanza creates a circular structure, reinforcing the theme of cyclical renewal and return. The rhyming structure also mirrors the poem's circular philosophy: individual actions (the tree planter's) return to and serve the larger community, which benefits future individuals in an endless cycle of giving and receiving.

The Heart of the Tree – Themes

Theme 1: Environmental Stewardship and Responsibility

The poem's central theme is the importance of planting trees and caring for the natural environment. The speaker emphasizes that planting a tree is not merely a horticultural act but a profound expression of environmental responsibility. By planting a tree, an individual contributes to the preservation and renewal of the natural world. The poem suggests that each person has a responsibility to maintain and improve the natural environment for present and future benefit. Trees provide shade, rain, food, and beauty—essential elements of habitable landscapes. The poem elevates tree planting from a simple task to a noble duty.

Theme 2: Responsibility to Future Generations

A significant theme is the tree planter's concern for and responsibility to future generations. The poem repeatedly emphasizes that the tree planter may never see or benefit from the mature tree. Instead, the tree is planted "for days to be," for "a coming age," and for "unborn eyes" to see and enjoy. This theme suggests that true responsibility extends beyond immediate personal benefit to encompass the welfare of people not yet born. The tree planter acts from love and loyalty to a future community that may not even know his name. This captures a profound moral principle: we are stewards of resources for the future, not merely consumers in the present.

Theme 3: Civic Duty and Community Welfare

The poem presents tree planting as an expression of civic responsibility and love for one's community. The tree planter acts from "love of home and loyalty" and "far-cast thought of civic good." He bestows "his blessings on the neighborhood." These phrases emphasize that environmental stewardship is fundamentally a social and civic matter, not merely a personal or aesthetic concern. By planting a tree, an individual contributes to the common good and demonstrates concern for the community's welfare. The poem suggests that citizenship involves more than voting or passive participation; it involves active contribution to the shared environment and community resources.

Theme 4: The Selfless Heart—The Essential Nature of Human Nobility

The poem's deepest and most transformative theme is revealed in the final lines: the tree planter's heart is stirred by the nation's growth, not by personal recognition or gain. This reveals that human nobility and spiritual maturity are fundamentally about having a "bigger selfless heart"—a heart whose purpose transcends personal interest and becomes dedicated to service. The tree planter's heart is comparable to the tree's heart in its essential nature: both exist to serve, to nurture, to give without expectation of return. The poem teaches that a truly noble person is one whose heart has been transformed to find its meaning and purpose in contributing to something larger than himself. The tree becomes a physical manifestation of this inner spiritual reality—the planter's selfless heart made visible and tangible in the world.

Theme 5: Spiritual Significance and Divine Partnership

The poem infuses tree planting with spiritual significance, suggesting that the act participates in divine creation. The tree "plants a home to heaven," and the tree planter works "in the hollow of His hand"—in partnership with God. The tree becomes a bridge between earthly and heavenly realms, creating spaces of peace, harmony, and spiritual beauty. The tree's song and beauty reflect "heaven's harmony," suggesting that nature itself is spiritually significant and worthy of reverence. The poem thus elevates environmental stewardship to a spiritual practice that connects individuals to transcendent meaning and purpose.

Theme 6: Individual Action and National Progress

The poem concludes with a final expansion of scope: "A nation's growth from sea to sea / Stirs in his heart who plants a tree." This theme suggests that individual actions, though seemingly humble, contribute to and are connected to larger national and social progress. The tree planter's individual act is not isolated; it ripples outward to affect community, nation, and future generations. The poem suggests an interconnectedness between the personal and the political, between individual responsibility and national wellbeing. National progress depends on the accumulation of individual acts of responsibility and stewardship.

The Heart of the Tree – Major Symbols

Symbol 1: The Tree

The tree is the poem's central symbol, representing far more than a botanical organism. The tree symbolizes life, growth, renewal, stability, and connection between earth and sky, present and future, individual and community. The tree provides tangible benefits (shade, fruit, wood) but also spiritual benefits (beauty, harmony, peace). The tree is stable and enduring yet constantly growing and changing. For the tree planter, the tree represents his legacy and contribution to the future—something that will outlast him and benefit those he will never meet. Most profoundly, the tree symbolizes the physical manifestation of the planter's selfless heart—his inner spiritual reality made visible and active in the world.

Symbol 2: The Heart (Planter's and Tree's)

The heart is the poem's most profound symbol, operating on multiple levels. The tree's heart (its inner sap and wood) symbolizes the tree's essence that continuously serves all living beings. The tree planter's heart symbolizes his inner essence, emotions, dreams, and spiritual commitment. Most importantly, the title "The Heart of the Tree" suggests the equivalence between the two hearts: both are defined by selfless service. The tree planter's heart and the tree's heart are fundamentally similar—both are invisible engines of giving, nurturing, and blessing. Understanding this equivalence reveals the poem's central spiritual insight about the nature of true nobility and human development.

Symbol 3: The Flag of Breezes Free

The flag symbolizes freedom, natural force, and the tree's role as a symbol and declaration. Flags represent causes, nations, and ideals. Comparing the tree to a "flag of breezes free" suggests the tree as a symbol of natural freedom and the liberation of air and movement. The tree is not constrained or confined but participates in the free, natural rhythms of wind and weather. The flag metaphor also suggests the tree as a public symbol of environmental value and natural beauty.

Symbol 4: The Bird's Song

The bird's song symbolizes beauty, harmony, peace, and the intangible spiritual benefits of nature. The "mother-croon of bird" and "treble of heaven's harmony" represent the spiritual dimension of tree planting—the creation of spaces where beauty and peace are possible. The birds' song in the tree represents nature's celebration and gratitude, as well as the spiritual nourishment the tree provides. Song also symbolizes voice and expression; the tree gives voice to beauty and truth.

Symbol 5: Shade and Rain

Shade and rain are concrete symbols of the tree's practical benefits and life-sustaining functions. Shade provides refuge and rest; rain nourishes and sustains life. Together, they represent the tree's role in creating habitable, life-supporting environments. They are gifts from nature that make human and animal life possible. In symbolic terms, shade and rain represent the often-invisible benefits and sustenance we receive from nature and from those who serve selflessly.

Symbol 6: Harvest and Abundance

The "harvest of a coming age" symbolizes the rewards and fruits of present labor. Harvest represents abundance, blessing, and the fulfillment of potential. That future generations will "harvest" the benefits of today's tree planting suggests that environmental stewardship produces abundance that nourishes future peoples. Harvest also represents gratitude and recognition of gifts received from nature and from previous generations.

The Heart of the Tree – Major Literary Devices

Literary Device 1: Metaphor

Definition: A metaphor directly compares two things by saying one IS another without using "like" or "as."

Example: "He plants the flag of breezes free" (the tree is a flag); "The shaft of beauty, towering high" (the tree is a shaft or beam of beauty); most profoundly, the implicit metaphor that the tree planter's heart equals the tree's heart in essential nature.

Explanation: The poem uses metaphor extensively to convey the spiritual and symbolic significance of tree planting. Metaphors transform the concrete act of planting a tree into an exploration of meaning, value, and purpose. The central metaphorical equivalence—tree planter's heart = tree's heart—reveals the poem's deepest truth about selfless service.

Literary Device 2: Personification

Definition: Personification gives human characteristics to non-human things.

Example: "He plants a friend of sun and sky" (the tree is personified as a friend); "mother-croon of bird" (birds personified as mothers).

Explanation: Personification makes the tree relational and emotional, suggesting that trees are not mere objects but companions and participants in human community and experience. Personification also subtly suggests that trees and humans share essential characteristics—both can serve, nurture, and love.

Literary Device 3: Imagery

Definition: Imagery uses vivid sensory language to create mental pictures.

Example: "cool shade and tender rain," "hushed and happy twilight," "the treble of heaven's harmony."

Explanation: The poem's vivid imagery appeals to multiple senses, making the abstract concepts concrete and emotionally engaging. Readers can almost feel the shade and rain, hear the bird songs, and experience the twilight beauty.

Literary Device 4: Repetition and Refrain

Definition: Repetition involves repeating words or phrases; a refrain is a repeated line or section.

Example: The line "What does he plant who plants a tree?" begins each stanza; "These things he plants who plants a tree" ends each stanza.

Explanation: The repetition of the central question emphasizes the poem's philosophical inquiry and creates a framework for exploring the multiple answers. The repeated refrain at the end of each stanza reinforces the accumulated meaning of all that is "planted," ultimately revealing that what is planted is the planter's own heart.

Literary Device 5: Alliteration

Definition: Alliteration is the repetition of beginning consonant sounds in nearby words.

Example: "friend," "flag," "free"; "seed," "sap"; "holds," "hollow."

Explanation: Alliteration creates musical quality and makes the poem pleasant to read aloud. It also connects related ideas, as the alliterative words often share thematic connections.

Literary Device 6: Rhyme and Rhyme Scheme

Definition: Rhyme is the repetition of ending sounds; rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhymes in a stanza.

Example: "tree/free/see" and "sky/high/die" are rhyming words arranged in the pattern ABABBCCAA.

Explanation: The regular rhyme scheme creates sonic satisfaction and makes the poem memorable. The rhymes bind ideas together thematically and emphasize connections between related concepts.

Literary Device 7: Metaphysical Conceit

Definition: A metaphysical conceit is an elaborate, ingenious metaphor that compares two very different things to reveal unexpected connections.

Example: The comparison of a humble act of planting a tree to an act that stirs a nation's growth, works in partnership with divine creation, and reveals the tree planter's selfless heart to be comparable to the tree's heart in essence.

Explanation: The poem's central conceit—that planting a tree is a spiritually and nationally significant act that reveals the planter's inner heart—connects the mundane act to cosmic and divine significance. This elevation reveals hidden depths of meaning in ordinary human actions and illuminates the spiritual nature of true service.

Literary Device 8: Synecdoche

Definition: Synecdoche is when a part represents the whole, or a whole represents a part.

Example: "sap and leaf and wood" represents the entire tree; "his heart" represents the entire person and their motivations, values, and spiritual commitment.

Explanation: The use of parts to represent wholes creates poetic conciseness and suggests that individual elements contain the essence of the larger whole. The heart especially represents the entire person's inner spiritual reality.

Literary Device 9: Parallel Structure

Definition: Parallel structure uses similar grammatical forms for emphasis and effect.

Example: "He plants cool shade and tender rain, / And seed and bud of days to be, / And years that fade and flush again" uses parallel "He plants" or implied parallel "and" constructions.

Explanation: Parallel structure creates rhythm and emphasis, making lists of items feel connected and significant rather than random or disconnected. The accumulation of parallel "plants" creates a sense of the multiple dimensions of tree planting's significance.

Literary Device 10: Elevated/Formal Diction

Definition: Elevated diction uses formal, sophisticated, or archaic language rather than everyday speech.

Example: "anigh" (near), "croon," "treble," "far-cast," "civic good."

Explanation: The formal language elevates the subject matter and creates a sense of timelessness and universality. It suggests that tree planting is a matter of significance worthy of dignified treatment in language and worthy of reverence.